Method
There is no simple ‘scientific’ map of reality – or if there were, it would be much too complicated and unwieldy to be grasped or used by anyone. But there are different maps of reality, from a variety of scientific viewpoints.
(Feyerabend, 2010, p. 256)
Method is a guiding hand, not like the dead hand of dogma.
(Parsons, 2014, p. 266)
All methodologies, even the most obvious ones, have their limits.
(Feyerabend, 2010, p. 241)
Methodology
How the study was conducted, including conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in the study.
(APA, 2010, p. 29)
The research methodology is the general approach the researcher takes in carrying out the research project; to some extent, this approach dictates the particular tools the researcher selects.
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2016, p. 8)
The Method section not only identifies what; it also highlights whose procedures and how these procedures were followed.
(Turner, 2018, p. 220)
Method Section – Contents
In the method section of a journal article, an author explains in detail how the study was conducted. Ideally, such an explanation should contain enough information to enable a reader to replicate (i.e., duplicate) the study. To accomplish this goal, the author addresses three questions:
- Who participated in the study?
- What kinds of measuring instruments were used to collect the date?
- What were the participants require to do?
The answer to each of these questions is generally found under an approprately titled subheading in the method section.
(Huck, 2012, p. 6)
Description of Methods
The general design of the study should be clear early in the report. In particular, the researcher should state whether qualitative or quantitative methods (or both) were used and what particular research traditions were followed-for example, whether the study was a longitudinal study, a 2-by-2 factorial design, an ethnography, a grounded theory study, or some combination of approaches.
Almost without exception, a research report should include a specific section labeled ‘Methods,’ ‘Methodology,’ or something similar. The research setting, sample, assessment instruments, and procedures should be desribed with as much precision as possible. Ideally, readers should know-from this description alone-exactly what was done, to the point where readers could replicate the study and in most cases get similar results.
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2016, p. 332)
Three Approaches to Research
Quantitative Research
A means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables can be measured, typically in instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures.
(Creswell, 2014, p. 247)
Qualitative Research
A means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures; collecting data in the participants’ setting; analyzing the data inductively, building from particulars to general themes; and making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
(Creswell, 2014, pp. 246-247)
Mixed-methods Research
An approach to inquiry that combines both qualitative and quantitative forms of research. It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantiative approaches, and the mixing or integrating of both approaches in a study.
(Creswell, 2014, p. 244)
General Criteria for Method Section
Introduction to Method Section
Describe the scope of what will be covered in the methodology section and lists your research questions and/or hypotheses.
Research Design
1. Describe the research methodology or approach (e.g., correlational, pre- and post-test, ANOVA).
2. For quantiative aspects of a study:
- List variables. for each variable, indicate whether it is an independent variable, a dependent variabloe, or neither.
- Identify threats to internal validity and what will be done to minimize or avoid these threats.
- Identify threats to external validity and what will be done to maximize the generalizability of findings.
3. For qualitative aspects of a study:
- Describe aspects of the cases on which data collection and analysis will focus.
- Identfiy criteria to judge the credibility and trustworthiness of the results.
Sampling
1. For quantitative aspect of a study, describe the characteristics of the population that will be studied.
2. For qualitative aspects of a study, describe the phenomenon that will be studied and the cases that comprise instances of the phenomenon.
3. Identify and justify sampling procedures.
4. Indicate sampling unit.
5. Indicate size of sample and why sample size is sufficient. For quantitative aspcets of a study, report results of power analysis.
6. Indicate whether the sample will be formed into subgroups, and if so, describe the characteristics of the subgroups.
7. Indicate whether the study involves the use of volunteers and explain whether their characteristics will affect the generalizability of research findings.
Instrumentation
1. Indicate how each of the study’s variables will be measured.
2. Indicate whether data collection instruments are available or if they need to be developed.
3. Provide copies of data collection instruments in appendix.
4. Provide evidence of validity and reliability for data collection instruments.
5. Indicate how validity and reliability will be assessed in the present study.
6. For each quantitative measure, indicate the measurement level of analysis and the potential range of values (continuous, categorical).
7. For qualitative aspects of a study:
- Indicate whether data collection will focus on etic or emic perspective, or both.
- Indicate how data will be collected on each case feature.
- Indicate the nature of each researcher’s involvement in the data collection process.
Data Collection
Describe in detail (for others to replicate) how the data will be collected. A narrative ‘step-by-step’ description will be required.
Data Analysis
1. Identify what descriptive and inferential statistical techniques, if any, will be used.
2. For each inferential statistical technique:
- Identify any associated statistical assumptions.
- Indicate how each statistical assumption will be tested.
- Indicate what will be done if any assumption is violated.
- Indicate how statistical significance will be assessed.
- Indicate how practical significance will be assessed.
3. For qualitative aspects of a study, describe the method of analysis that will be used.
For Quantitative Methods
See:
Hancock, G. R., & Mueller, R. O. (2010). The reviewer’s guide to quantitative methods in the social sciences. Routledge.
Hancock and Mueller provide an overview of different quantitative methods (e.g., ANOVA, Canonical Correlation Analysis, Factor Analysis: Exploratory and Confirmatory, Structural Equation Modeling). Each chapter provides an overview of the method and provides a table that identifies critique items for the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections of a research study.
The second edition is now available from Routledge.
This is an invaluable resource and I recommend it for anyone planning to conduct a quantitative research study.
In Summary
The main question to ask when developing a Method section is whether someone else could replicate the study based on the information provided. The Method section should not only explain what was done and how it was done, but it must also provide enough information for others to replicate the study if they desire.